Technol. 107, 111116. Another problem to be overcome for the effective production of second-generation ethanol is the tolerance to acetic acid. A. Microbiol. A., van Dijken, J. P., et al. Int. Microbial pigments are categorized as secondary metabolites . Technol. These are just a few of the numerous applications of microbial genetics that we will explore in this chapter. On-line and in situ biosensors for monitoring environmental pollution. Spectr. A new biolistic intradermal injector. 48, 371395. Bread, beer and wine: yeast domestication in the Saccharomyces sensu stricto complex. A biotechnological process involving filamentous fungi to produce natural crystalline vanillin from maize bran. Biol. doi: 10.1023/A:1005387016390, Rao, S. S., Gomez, P., Mascola, J. R., Dang, V., Krivulka, G. R., Yu, F., et al. However, production in yeasts, such as S. cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris, is generally required when the target protein cannot be produced in a soluble form in a prokaryotic system, when it is rich in disulfide bonds, or when a specific PTM, essential for the biological activity of the protein, cannot be artificially created from the purified product (Jenkins, 2007; Demain and Vaishnav, 2009). The microorganisms are then grown on an industrial scale to synthesize products such as insulin, vaccines, and biodegradable polymers. Gene therapy 5. Expert Rev. These studies not only provide perspectives for producing more effective vaccines against influenza but also suggest innovative approaches for the generation of live attenuated strains for viral pathogens, which remains a challenge (Bournazos and Ravetch, 2017). Curr. Energy 35, 14411449. Sci. Nat. Potentiometric microbial electrode. Memmert climate chambers are known for their versatile application solutions, efficient Advanced Peltier Technology operation and long lasting reliability. The focus on microorganisms as an alternative in the production of biosensors is mainly due to the ability to produce them massively through cell culture (Su et al., 2011). The applications are: 1. These toxins, previously mentioned in this text, are inactive crystals that, when ingested by Aedes larvae, are solubilized by intestinal proteases and converted into active toxins that interact with the cell membrane of the midgut, leading to pore formation, cell lysis, septicemia, and finally death (Gill et al., 1992; de Maagd et al., 2001). J. Bras. When genomics and transcriptomics are applied to entire microbial communities, we use the terms metagenomics and metatranscriptomics, respectively. J. (B) Use of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis bioinsecticide to fight dengue. Biotechnol. The mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins. 168, 4151. 1,3-Propanediol production by new recombinant Escherichia coli containing genes from pathogenic bacteria. Industrial production of acetone and butanol by fermentation-100 years later. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.10.001, Accinelli, C., Abbas, H. K., Little, N. S., Kotowicz, J. K., Mencarelli, M., and Shier, W. T. (2016). Industrial applications of microbial lipases. Wang, L., Cao, Z., Hou, L., Yin, L., Wang, D., Gao, Q., et al. doi: 10.1002/bbb.1663, Luengo, J. M., Garcia, B., Sandoval, A., Naharro, G., and Oliveira, E. R. (2003). Proc. Biotechnol. PLoS Negl. doi: 10.1016/S0142-9612(03)00026-7, Kim, H. J., Lim, J. W., Jeong, H., Lee, S.-J., Lee, D.-W., Kim, T., et al. Sci. These macromolecules are modified by chemical and/or engineering methods using molecular biology techniques to display better pharmacological properties, such as higher activity, greater stability, fewer side effects, and lower immunogenicity (Beck, 2011; Jozala et al., 2016). 62, 369373. (2012). Nat. A potential application of genetic engineering for dairy industry is in the generation of enhanced starter cultures for yoghurt and cheese manufacture. Food Agric. 90, 5360. A new antibiotic kills pathogens without detectable resistance. (2016). doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2003.10.018, Ismail, A.-M., Abo-Elmagd, H., and Housseiny, M. M. (2016). Exp. Building on that ethos of providing industry leading solutions for temperature and climate control, the m360 team expanded on what is provided in our standard product and introduced future-proof features to further ensure Memmert device . Application of a statistical design to the optimization of culture medium for -amylase production by Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404 grown on orange waste powder. FEMS Microbiol. Individ. Microbes are ideally suited for combined biochemical and genetic studies and have been successful in providing information on the genetic code and the regulation of gene activity. (2014). Not only biodiversity but also the unique nature and the biosynthetic capacities under specific environmental conditions make microorganisms the probable candidates to solve particularly complex environmental problems, such as the biodegradation of xenobiotics, or even recurrent problems, such as the decomposition of garbage and waste piles produced daily in urban environments. Electrical wiring of Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas fluorescens with osmium redox polymers. A safe potential juice clarifying pectinase from Trichoderma viride EF-8 utilizing Egyptian onion skins. (2013). Biotechnol. Received: 22 February 2017; Accepted: 24 April 2017;Published: 10 May 2017. This synthesis of chemicals through microbial metabolic processes meets an urgent need to reduce dependence on fossil fuels for energy generation. Biocontrol Sci. Med. It also involves the transmission of hereditary characters in microbes. Recombinant DNA technology 3. 38, 13511363. Technol. The most commonly used filamentous fungi are Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium, and among the prokaryotic algae, the most used belong to the genus Spirulina, with approximately 65% of their dry weight consisting of protein (Nalage et al., 2016). 33, 235258. A., and Hameed, A. Technol. Watson and Cricks identification of the structure of DNA in 1953 was the seminal event in the field of genetic engineering. In the future, breads and pastas of the better quality can be obtained in less time. Recombinant protein production in bacterial hosts. A. Personal genome sequence information may someday be used to prescribe medications that will be most effective and least toxic on the basis of the individual patients genotype. PCR amplifies the number of copies of DNA and can assist in diagnosis of infections caused by microbes that are difficult to culture, such as Chlamydia trachomatis (right). (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2008.05.008, Schmidt, S. T., Foged, C., Korsholm, K. S., Rades, T., and Christensen, D. (2016). 22, 2733. Trop. Rep. 6, 37155. doi: 10.1038/srep37155, Awadhiya, A., Tyeb, S., Rathore, K., and Verma, V. (2016). Microbiol. He then became an admirer of the microscopic universe, describing the association of microorganisms with diseases and proposing vaccination methods such as used against anthrax (1881) and human rabies (1885) (Pasteur, 2002; Plotkin and Plotkin, 2011). Biochemical aspects of genetics: the operon. Microbial genetics and Molecular biology - nature of genetic information and how it regulated the development and function of cells and organisms. 2, 396409. Chien, A., Edgar, D. B., and Trela, J. M. (1976). Using wastewater after lipid fermentation as substrate for bacterial cellulose production by Gluconacetobacter xylinus. In addition, the recombinant DNA technique has facilitated the availability of microbial biosensors in the market, providing a new direction to manipulate their selectivity and sensitivity at the DNA level. doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0012-2016, Lee, K. Y., and Mooney, D. J. Nematology 2, 355362. Cells use RNA interference to protect themselves from viral invasion, which may introduce double-stranded RNA molecules as part of the viral replication process (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). (2016). Small scale production and characterization of xanthan gum synthesized by local isolates of Xanthomonas campestris. Int. Technol. Rev. Single cell proteins, in The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, eds B. Caballero, P. Finglas, and F. Toldr (Oxford: Academic Press), 790794. Intell. Saerens, S., and Swiegers, J. H. (2016). Marker expression generates signals that may indicate the presence and concentration of analytes (biosensors). B. The participation of the microorganisms in this case is indirect. Clinical and serological responses following primary and booster immunization with Salmonella typhi Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccines. 94, 125132. One hundred years of clostridial butanol fermentation. Two major factors that have been limiting real commercialization of biosurfactants in the past are firstly the limited structural variety and secondly the high production price due to low inherent productivities, small scale and/or a lack of process knowledge. Environ. Entomol. Industries utilising microbial enzymes are food, pharmaceutical, detergent, leather, waste management and many others. In addition, the progress achieved by the genetic improvement of this virus has increased its effectiveness as an insecticide (Popham et al., 2016). Thus began the pioneering studies of Pasteur on lactic acid and alcoholic fermentations (Gal, 2008). Godon, J. J., Zumstein, E., Dabert, P., Habouzit, F., and Moletta, R. (1997). Live vaccine against measles, mumps, and rubella and the risk of hospital admissions for nontargeted infections. doi: 10.1126/science.6337396, Jones, E. E., Bienkowski, D. A., and Stewart, A. 82, 4122741236. Stoytcheva, M., Zlatev, R., Magnin, J.-P., Ovalle, M., and Valdez, B. doi: 10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.01.006, Mokoena, M. P., Mutanda, T., and Olaniran, A. O. These devices include dialysis membranes and scaffolds for tissue engineering (Svensson et al., 2005). Microbial genomics: A new tool to increase food quality and safety. 81, 419423. (2016). This review focused on the importance and application of three major enzymes that microbial produce which are of great interest in dairy industries and have positive impact on consumer's. In the future, the microbiological processes for obtaining a variety of organic acids are expected to will be competitive, become established in the market, and allow for an annual increase in the production of these compounds. doi: 10.1163/138855410X552670, de Maagd, R. A., Bravo, A., and Crickmore, N. (2001). Microbiol. Annu. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.014, Cheng, L., Chen, W., Adams, T. S., Wei, X., Li, L., McCormack, M. L., et al. A recent biotechnological process called biologically active carbon (BAC) has been found to be very efficient in removing water contaminants. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.03.001, Benn, C. S., Fisker, A. Inactivated vaccines are currently available for hepatitis A, rabies, cholera, influenza, poliomyelitis (Salk), typhoid fever, and pertussis. *Correspondence: Luciana C. Vitorino, luciana.vitorino@ifgoiano.edu.br, Chemical and Fuel Technological Microbiology, http://www.who.int/immunization/sage/meetings/2014/april, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Goiano Federal Institute, Gois, Brazil. Despite the application of biotechnological techniques to the food-processing industry and the agroindustry, which occurred prior to the technological advances of the 1970s, the current trend incorporates the use of genetically modified microorganisms or even the use of enzymes, dyes, and other compounds obtained from microbial metabolism with the aim of improving productivity, enhancing organoleptic characteristics, or even attributing new nutritional functions to certain foods. Trop. Patol. Barua, R., Alam, M. J., Salim, M., and Ashrafee, T. S. (2016). Microb. Plant Dis. Curr. Yale J. Biol. Trends Genet. Rational design of therapeutic mAbs against aggregation through protein engineering and incorporation of glycosylation motifs applied to bevacizumab. Recombinant microbial biosensor for cadmium and lead detection. Biotechnol. Many of the molecular tools discovered in recent decades have been produced using prokaryotic microbes. 14, 137. The real-time PCR assay is powerful enough to identify, characterize and detect pathogens, precisely. These products and services can be obtained from the expression of transgenes or native microbial genes (P = promoter and R = reporter). But left untreated, the symptoms can become quite severe and debilitating. This range of lifestyles within the genus explains why Trichoderma is the source of many strains commercially used in biological control (Howell, 2003). 3:e516. 225, 18. 136, 91101. Future Med. Biosensors integrate microorganisms with a physical transducer to generate a measurable signal proportional to the concentration of analytes, allowing rapid and accurate detection of analysis targets in diverse fields such as medicine, environmental monitoring, food processing, and others (DSouza, 2001; Paitan et al., 2003; Lei et al., 2006; Su et al., 2011). Download chapter PDF 6.1 Introduction The most used yeasts for obtaining SCPs are Saccharomyces, Candida, and Rhodotorula. These biopolymers are accumulated intracellularly by bacteria as a carbon and/or energy reserve under the limitation of a nutrient essential for their growth, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, or oxygen (Philip et al., 2007). Characterization of a biogas-producing microbial community by short-read next generation DNA sequencing. (2015). Rev. 30, 2332. doi: 10.1080/15287394.2016.1153447, Oliveira, R. S., Rocha, I., Ma, Y., Vostka, M., and Freitas, H. (2016b). Eventually, genetic engineering will be used to produce DNA vaccines and various gene therapies, as well as customized medicines for fighting cancer and other diseases. Sarwar, M. (2015a). Ahmad, S., Abbas, S. S., Prakash, R., Alam, A., and Husain, M. A. Drug Discov. Viral recombinant vaccines to the E6 and E7 antigens of HPV-16. Cytoplasmic incompatibility facilitates the propagation of Wolbachia in natural populations and their persistence over time (McMeniman et al., 2009). Recombinant (gene) vaccines are prepared from viruses engineered to carry genes encoding antigens from other disease-causing viruses for expression in the host after inoculation. Limited research results, inappropriate prescription of antibiotics, and misuse of antibiotics by the general population have threatened antibiotic potency and increased the occurrence of superbugs, i.e., microorganisms that appear at an alarming rate and are resistant to most or all clinical antibiotics in use (Srivastava et al., 2011). 3, 2830. Use of Technological Microbiology to prevent the proliferation of the Aedes aegypti vector and the DENV virus. New molecular methods, including genomics and metagenomics, are being . At the same time, the technological race for the development of a vaccine against dengue continues. doi: 10.1038/nature14098, Linko, Y.-Y., Javanainen, P., and Linko, S. (1997). doi: 10.9755/ejfa.2015.05.309, Walder, F., Boller, T., Wiemken, A., and Courty, P.-E. (2016). 15, 795798. Research efforts have also been directed at improving the purification of drinking water. doi: 10.3920/BM2012.0030, Gill, S. S., Cowles, E. A., and Pietrantonio, P. V. (1992). Probiotic potentials of cereal-based beverages. Glycerol production by microbial fermentation: a review. doi: 10.1080/09593330.2015.1118559, Sauer, M. (2016). They are poorly reactogenic, which is an advantage in terms of adverse effects but a disadvantage in terms of stimulating potent and long-lasting immune responses (Bobbala and Hook, 2016). Personal reflections on the origins and emergence of recombinant DNA technology. Is there an optimal formulation and delivery strategy for subunit vaccines? 128, 196202. Technol. Front. 7:411. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00411, Paitan, Y., Biran, D., Biran, I., Shechter, N., Babai, R., Rishpon, J., et al. Changing feeding regimes to demonstrate flexible biogas production: effects on process performance, microbial community structure, and methanogenesis pathways. (2005). Degr, R., Edwards, G., and Zhang, Z. Yeast expression systems for industrial biotechnology, in Gene Expression Systems in Fungi: Advancements and Applications, Part of the Series Fungal Biology, eds M. Schmoll and C. Dattenbck (New York City, NY: Springer International Publishing), 227237. J. Biotechnol. Biosens. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.03.031, Paterson, R. R. M. (2006). Microbes 4, 127142. By contrast, toxoid vaccines stimulate the immune response by using inactivated pathogen toxins as antigens. This page titled 12: Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. Multistate point-prevalence survey of health care-associated infections. doi: 10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00423-0, Beck, A. doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.06.003, Lei, Y., Chen, W., and Mulchandani, A. Trichoderma: the genomics of opportunistic success. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.04.077, Sussman, M. (1970). (2016). 1. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. An example is the potential presented by the introduction of the bacterium Wolbachia as an endosymbiont of the mosquito Aedes aegypti, which transmits diseases such as dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya, and the more recently detected Zika virus (Walker et al., 2011). Med. (2007). Rend. The major advantages of microbial enzymes in many industries such as food, detergent, pharmaceutical, paper, and textile industries are discussed. Macromol. At no other time in history have microorganisms been so present in areas such as agriculture and medicine, except as recognized villains. Kinetic study on the removal of toxic phenol and chlorophenol from waste water by horseradish peroxidise. This alternative has been successfully applied in several regions of the world (e.g., Mohiddin et al., 2016; Setha et al., 2016), and many Bti-based commercial products have been introduced to the market, although some strains of A. aegypti have already shown resistance to Bt toxins (Paris et al., 2011, 2012; Wu et al., 2016). However, the bioprospection and characterization of these microorganisms, associated with the most diverse plant species, is aimed not only at obtaining strains of agronomic importance but also at the identification of species that produce metabolites with potential for the synthesis of antibiotics (e.g., Ma et al., 2016), as well as potential for obtaining biotechnologically important chemicals. The focus of this approach is on the reduction of mosquito longevity and not on abundance. The main applications of fungi, bacteria, and viruses for obtaining new or improved products. 63, 541556. Recent developments such as the discovery of functional xylose isomerases (Kuyper et al., 2005) resulted in the creation of new yeasts capable of fermenting 5-carbon (C5) sugars, as well as 6-carbon (C6) sugars. 151, 684691. J. Microbiol. This acid is one of the main inhibitors of lignocellulose hydrolysates. 57, 790804. Microbes play a vital role in the fermentation process to obtain several products. doi: 10.1126/science.1165326. To prevent future infections, Kaylas physician advised her to use insect repellant and wear protective clothing during her outdoor adventures. In addition to two antibody tests, which were inconclusive in Kaylas case, and the PCR test, a Southern blot could be used with B. burgdorferi-specific DNA probes to identify DNA from the pathogen. FIGURE 4. Genetics of Pseudomonas. Top. The most prominent disease being studied with proteomic approaches is cancer, but this area of study is also being applied to infectious diseases. Overton, T. W. (2014). Gene transfer and movement 4. Mycol. Biosimilar, Biobetter and next generation therapeutic antibodies. Microbiol. Researchers are eager to find a more environment friendly and non-toxic substitute because these synthetic dyes have a negative impact on the environment and people's health. Stem cell and organ cloning 7. The following points highlight the top eight applications of genetic engineering in industry. Satish, K. R., Kanmani, P., Yuvaraj, N., Paari, K. A., Pattukumar, V., and Arul, V. (2013). 12, 6377. doi: 10.1007/s10295-009-0598-8, Liu, X., Zhang, W., Zhao, Z., Dai, X., Yang, Y., and Bai, Z. Non-dairy probiotic beverages: the next step into human health. 171, 17. The possibility of using microorganisms to obtain food, food additives, or even microbial biomass for food has reinvigorated the food-processing industry, which sees new possibilities for conventional foods, such as flavors, textures, and aromas, or even the discovery of new foods. Kary Mullis and others contributors found that this enzyme could be used in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA fragments (Chien et al., 1976; Saiki et al., 1988). Filamentous fungi, used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine, have also been evaluated for the potential production of biopharmaceuticals. Res. Waste treatment based on enzymatic processes tends to be less expensive; however, the enzymes are biodegradable, and further studies and prospection of microbial enzymes that are thermostable or resilient to large pH variations are needed. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.04.120170.001031, Svensson, A., Nicklasson, E., Harrah, T., Panilaitis, B., Kaplan, D. L., Brittberg, M., et al. (2015). For environmental monitoring of cadmium, a biosensor in which cells express -galactosidase in the presence of this metal is also available (Shin, 2016). Microb. Biol. doi: 10.1007/s00253-003-1289-4, Olsen, J. L. (2016). Microbiol. doi: 10.1021/ac9805201, Nabel, G. J. Carbohydr. Bacterial larvicide, Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis strain AM 65-52 water dispersible granule formulation impacts both dengue vector, Aedes aegypti (L.) population density and disease transmission in Cambodia. Related Journals of Microbial Genetics B. Goldberg, and A. Filloux (Dordrecht: Springer), 289314. Samuel, D. (1996). This functional characteristic of Trichoderma and other biocontrol species responds to the increasing call for practices that minimize the side effects left by pesticides, such as resistance in pest populations, reduction of soil and water quality, and the generation of residues with harmful effects on non-target organisms. 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